Thursday, March 27, 2025

Yeats and Maud Gonne

 The poetry of William Butler Yeats spans fifty years. During that course of time, Yeats evolved stylistically and thematically. His early poems often reflect his interest in Irish myth, legends and tales. His later poems shift toward politics, the contrast between youth and age, the Irish fight for independence and civil war and his personal mythology regarding human history. The single most repeated presence in Yeats’s poetry is Maud Gonne, his unrequited love. In every collection of his poetry except one, is at least one poem alluding to or metaphorically suggesting Maud Gonne. Yeats met Gonne in January 1889, and soon after fell hopelessly in love with her. She was born in 1866 and became an Irish patriot, an actress and a feminist. She was a political activist, one of the founders of Sinn Fein and was fervent in her work for Irish independence from Britain in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. She also was a successful actress and the heroine in Yeats’s first play, Cathleen ni Houlihan. In 1891, Yeats, asked her to marry him, but she refused. Undeterred, he asked her four more times, but each time she said they could only be friends. To his horror, Gonne married Major John MacBride in 1903, and though a “drunken vainglorious lout,” MacBride was one of the heroes of the Easter 1916 uprising, executed after the revolt failed. He was an abusive husband, and he and Gonne separated in 1905. Her separation from MacBride gave Yeats hope that Maud might finally love him as he loved her. That was never to be, but all was not lost since his heartache fermented much of his verse he was to compose. Here is an early poem, written shortly after Gonne first refused to marry Yeats; it subtly alludes to her in the second stanza.

Tuesday, March 18, 2025

Spring Poems

 Geoffery Chaucer, in his opening lines of The Canterbury Tales, suggests that each April brings a promise of rebirth and renewal. Relieved and grateful that the life-engendering power of spring has returned after the dark, cold winter days, his pilgrims happily set off on a journey to offer prayers of thanks to the saint of Canterbury, Thomas Becket, for protecting their health through the bleak period of winter.

When April with its sweet-smelling showers
Has pierced the drought of March to the root,
And bathed every vein (of the plants) in such liquid
By which power the flower is created;
When the West Wind also with its sweet breath,
In every wood and field has breathed life into
The tender new leaves, and the young sun
Has run half its course in Aries,
And small fowls make melody,
Those that sleep all the night with open eyes
So Nature incites them in their hearts,
Then folk long to go on pilgrimages...
Harvard's Chaucer Website

Poems celebrating the return of spring after the desolation of winter is a well-worn tradition in poetry. But spring has not always elicited relief or joy in poets. Later poets have explored how spring arouses regret, dismay, sorrow or even despondency. Wordsworth’s spring poem, “Lines Written in Early Spring,” (1798) commences with a musical serenity but quickly descends into a mournful mood.

         Lines Written in Early Spring

I heard a thousand blended notes,
While in a grove I sate reclined,
In that sweet mood when pleasant thoughts
Bring sad thoughts to the mind.

To her fair works did Nature link
The human soul that through me ran;
And much it grieved my heart to think
What man had man made of man.

Through primrose tufts, in that green bower,
the periwinkle trailed its wreaths;
And 'tis my faith that every flower
Enjoys the air it breathes.

The birds around me hopped and played,
Their thoughts I cannot measure--
But the least motion which they made
It seemed a thrill of pleasure.

The budding twigs spread out their fan,
To catch the breezy air;
And I must think, do all I can,
That there was pleasure there.

If this belief from heaven be sent,
If such be Nature's holy plan,
Have I not reason to lament
What man has made of man?

Reclining in a grove, the speaker hears "a thousand blended notes”—nature’s music and feels a “sweet mood” come over him. Nevertheless, that “sweet mood” is one in which “pleasure thoughts / Bring sad thoughts to the mind.” Why do “pleasant thoughts” make him think of “sad thoughts”? In stanza 2, Wordsworth implies what had made him sad. He believed that human beings and nature are essentially interconnected: “To her fair works did Nature link / The human soul that through me ran.” Moreover, he was convinced that sharing in the “fair works” of nature should induce human beings to appreciate not only the sublime beauty of the physical world but also elevate their minds and spirits, making them kind, gentle, charitable, and noble. Instead, the world around him had been undergoing turbulent economic changes. The Industrial Revolution had given birth to sprawling manufacturing towns that forced swaths of the population from small villages to work in “dark satanic mills” as characterized by the fellow poet Willaim Blake. In addition, the enclosure of open-field farms by privately owned large agricultural interests displaced hundreds from small farms and drove many into poverty. Wordsworth saw cruelty and greed of these economic policies as directly contradicting the true relationship humans were supposed to have with nature. Nature inspires Wordsworth with joy, but the behavior of men blighted the potential joy of spring: “And much it grieved my heart to think / What man has made of man.”

Through the next three stanzas of the poem, Wordsworth continues to embrace nature but the feeling in stanza 1 haunts him. In stanza 3, he states ‘‘tis my faith that flowers enjoy flower / Enjoys the air it breathes.” But in stanza (4), that “faith” or certainty recedes slightly as he admits that he cannot know what the birds think, but he wants (“seemed”) to believe their movement denotes “a thrill of pleasure.” In stanza 5, he watches the leaves emerge from their winter sleep and “catch the breezy air.” The “pleasure” he should experience spontaneously from this seasonal gift of nature has to be compelled by his mind into thoughts: “think, do all I can, / That there was pleasure there.” The exertion here is as much emotional as it is intellectual. As the poem concludes, Wordsworth constructs a logical proposition in the form of a question. If the beauty and glory of nature is a gift or “holy plan,” what else can he do but “lament / What man has made of man?”

Perhaps the most despondent utterance about the arrival of spring comes from T. S. Eliot’s famous opening lines of The Waste Land. (1922)

April is the cruelest month, breeding
Lilacs out of the dead land, mixing
Memory and desire, stirring
Dull roots with spring rain.

It should be clear that these lines echo Chaucer’s from The Canterbury Tales. When first encountering the poem, many readers are bewildered by them. However, considering them after reading Wordsworth’s “What man has made of man,” their meaning and power can be more easily grasped. Eliot wrote his poem in the aftermath of the enormous death and destruction of the First World War. The shock of the war filled Eliot with a genuine dread, and a fear that life had become morally and spiritually sterile. For him, humans were trapped in a nightmare of existential alienation. How could spring with its “promise” of resurrection be sustained for Eliot in this modern world that “man had made”? Eliot meanders among the consciousness of the dead souls in his poem, through that waste land, and if you read his poem, you will be surprised what he, and ultimately you, discover.    

Monday, March 17, 2025

Saint Patrick's Day Poem

During the Easter week of 1916 Irish rebels took over the General Post Office in Dublin and battled British forces for control of the city. The Irish surrender and the British government executed several leaders of the revolt. William Butler Yeats, who believed strongly that violence was the wrong way to shake off English rule, nevertheless commemorated those who led the Irish and were executed in his poem Easter 1916:

           Easter 1916

I have met them at close of day
Coming with vivid faces
From counter of desk among gray
Eighteenth-century houses.
I have passed with a nod of the head
Or polite meaningless words,
Or have lingered awhile and said
Polite meaningless words,
And thought before I had done
Of a mocking tale or a gibe
To please a companion
Around the fire at the club,
Being certain that they and I
But lived where motley is worn:
All changed, changed utterly:
A terrible beauty is born.

That woman's days were spent
In ignorant good will
Her nights in argument
Until her voice grew shrill.
What voice more sweet than hers
When, young and beautiful,
She rode to harriers?
This man had kept a school
And rode our winged horse;
This other his helper and friend
Was coming into his force;
He might have won fame in the end,
So sensitive his nature seemed,
So daring and sweet his thought.
This other man I had dreamed
A drunken, vainglorious lout.
He had done most bitter wrong
To some who are near my heart,
Yet I number him in the song;
He, too, has resigned his part
In the casual comedy;
He, too has been changed in hi turn,
Transformed utterly:
A terrible beauty is born.

Hearts with one purpose alone
Through summer and winter seem
Enchanted to a stone
To trouble the living stream.
the horse that comes from the road,
the rider, the birds that range
From cloud to tumbling cloud,
Minute by minute they change;
A shadow of cloud on the stream
changes minute by minute;
A horse plashes within it;
The long-legged moorhens  dive,
And hens to moorcocks call;
Minute by minute they live:
The stone's in the midst of it all.

Too long a sacrifice
Can make a stone of the heart.
O when may it suffice?
That is Heaven's part, our part
To murmur name upon name,
As a mother names her child
On limbs that had run wild.
What was it but nightfall?
No, no, not night but death;
Was it needless death after all?
For England may keep faith
For all that is done and said.
We know their dream; enough
To know they dreamed and are dead;
And what if excess of love
Bewildered them till they died?
I write it out in a verse--
MacDonagh and MacBride
And Connolly and Pearse
Now and in time to be,
Are changed, changed utterly:
A terrible beauty is born.

Yeats begins by thinking of times he had encountered a few of the rebel leaders in the course of everyday life. What unfolds is a mini narrative of previous encounters with those who fought that Easter week. He had “met them at close of day,” acknowledged them as they “passed,” exchanged “polite meaningless words,” and essentially felt that they and he “But lived where motley is worn.” These men and women seemed to him plain, insignificant human beings. But something has changed, and the stanza closes with the refrain that proclaims, “All changed, changed utterly: / A terrible beauty is born.”

Stanza 2 drops us abruptly among “characters” who obviously fought against the British. Each seems quite ordinary and certainly far from heroic. Yeats withholds their names: “That” woman who apparently argue for the Irish cause “Until her voice grew shrill”; two other men, one who “had kept a school,” and the other who possessed a “sensitive…nature”; finally, “A drunken, vainglorious lout.” All of them have performed in what Yeats terms “the casual comedy;” but as in stanza 1, the poem’s refrain tells us the revolt was certainly no comedy, and that these rebels are “Transformed utterly” by what they did and again that within Ireland “A terrible beauty is born.”

Something quite unexpected and unusual happens in stanza 3. He contrasts devotion to a single purpose to the “living stream” of time and change. The unnamed persons above become “Hearts with one purpose alone / Through summer and winter seem / Enchanted to a stone.” The rebel’s single-minded resort to violence disturbed Yeats. He supported the Irish goal of self- determination but recoiled from the violence that the rebels used to achieve that end. How could he resolve these conflicting points of view?

In the final stanza, Yeats moves back and forth within his ambivalence regarding the violent methods of the rebels. He asks first whether “Too long a sacrifice / Can make a stone of the heart?” Fighting against the stronger, dominant English seemed to harden hearts and cause senseless deaths. His judgment of the rebels quickly falls back as he decides to leave judgment to “heaven’s part.” He muses that the rebels are akin to children to be named by the poet the way “a mother names her child / When sleep at last has come / On limbs that had run wild.” This fantasy fades when he asks and answers, “Was is it but nightfall? / No, no, not night but death.” He realizes that the rebels are more than simply zealous, unbending ideologues; they were “Bewildered” by “excess of love” and were patriots who fought and died for their freedom. The ambivalence he expressed earlier in the poem gives way to his view that they are the agents of the terrible beauty [that] is born.” He pronounces the names he left unsaid before in a roster of heroes to be honored forever:

I write it out in a verse--
MacDonagh and MacBride
And Connolly and Pearse
Now and in time to be,
Wherever green is worn,
Are changed, changed utterly:
A terrible beauty is born.


Sunday, March 2, 2025

Why Read Paradise Lost?

 John Milton’s Paradise Lost is often recognized as the greatest poem in the English Language. The poem is a powerful masterpiece that Milton hoped would “find” a “fit audience…though few.” (VII, 31) Although it never had a broad, popular “audience,” today, the poem is less read than it should be, which is attributable to less apt or oblivious reading public.

Monday, February 3, 2025

Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind"

      Percy Shelley is one of the great 19th century Romantic poets. Unfortunately, his poems have not always enjoyed high praise from all who have read his work. For instance, the poet T. S. Eliot once dismissed Shelley, writing that “The Ideas of Shelley seem to me always to be ideas of adolescence…I find his ideas repellent.” In spite of this critical judgment, Eliot’s own poetry was influenced by Shelley’s, and later in his life Eliot even acknowledged the profundity of Shelley’s final unfinished poem “The Triumph of Life.” Among critics today, there isn’t much dispute about the quality of Shelley’s poetry. But that quality does not assure that someone reading Shelley’s poems for the first time will find them inspiring or even interesting. That is true because his poems can often extend well beyond a reader’s comprehension. His most anthologized poem, “Ode to the West Wind” exemplifies this point.


                            Ode to the West Wind
                                             I
O wild West Wind, thou breath of Autumn's being,
Thou, from whose unseen presence the leaves dead
Are driven, lie ghosts from an enchanter fleeing,

Yellow, and black, and pale, and hectic red,
Pestilence-stricken multitudes: O Thou,              5
Who chariotest to their dark wintry bed

The winged seeds, where they lie cold and low,
Each like a corpse within 'tis grave, until
Thine azure sister of the Spring shall blow

Her clarion e'er the dreaming earth, and fill         10
(Driving sweet buds like flocks to feed in air)
With living hues and odours plain and hill:

Wild Spirit, which art moving everywhere;
Destroyer and Preserver; hear, O hear!

                                             II
Thou on whose stream, 'mid the steep sky's commotion, 15
Loose clouds like Earth's decaying leaves are shed,
Shook from the tangled boughs of Heaven and Ocean,

Angels of rain and lightning: there are spread
On the blue surface of thine airy surge,
Like the bright hair uplifted from the head           20

Of some fierce Maenad, even from the dim verge
Of the horizon to the zenith's height,
The locks of the approaching storm.  Thou dirge

Of the dying year, to which tis closing night
Will be the dome of a vast sepulchre                  25
Vaulted with all thy congregated might

Of vapours, from whose solid atmosphere
Black rain, and fire, and hail will burst: O hear!

                                             III
Thou who didst waken from his summer dreams
The blue Mediterranean, where he lay,                 30
Lulled by the coil of his crystalline streams,

Beside a pumice isle in Baiae's bay,
And saw in sleep old palaces and towers
Quivering within the wave's intenser day,

All overgrown with azure moss and flowers             35
So sweet, the sense faints picturing them! Thou
For whose path the Atlantic's level's powers

Cleave themselves into chasm, while far below
The sea-blooms and the oozy woods which wear
The sapless foliage of the ocean, know                40

Thy voice, and suddenly grow grey with fear,
And tremble and despoil themselves: O hear!

                                             IV
If I were a dead leaf thou mightest bear;
If I were a swift cloud to fly with thee;
A wave to pant beneath thy power, and share           45

The impulse of thy strength, only less free
Than thou, O Uncontrollable! If even
I were as in my boyhood, and could be

The comrade of thy wanderings over Heaven,
As then, when to outstrip thy skiey speed             50
Scarce seemed a vision; I would ne'er have striven

As thus with thee in prayer in my sore need.
Oh! lift me as a wave, a leaf, a cloud!
I fall upon the thorns of life! I bleed!

A heavy weight of hours has chained and bowed         55
One too like thee: tameless, and swift, and proud.

                                               V
Make me thy lyre, even as the forest is:
What if my leaves are falling like its own!
The tumult of thy mighty harmonies                    60

Will take from both a deep, autumnal tone,
Sweet though in sadness. Be thou, Spirit fierce,
My spirit! Be thou me, impetuous one!

Drive my dead thoughts over the universe
Like withered leaves to quicken a new birth!          65
And, by the incantation of this verse,

Scatter, as from an unextinguished hearth
Ashes and sparks, my words among mankind!
Be through my lips to unawakened Earth

The trumpet of prophecy! O Wind,
If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?            70       

The first thing to know about this poem is that the Romantic poets (e.g. Coleridge, Wordsworth) connected the wind with the changing of the seasons, from autumn through winter and into spring. Shelley begins his poem by addressing the west wind as a “Wild Spirit” and depicting through his imagery this “Wind” as an animated presence that has the power to bring death and rebirth on earth. It drives the dead “Yellow, and black, and pale, and hectic red” leaves from the trees and “chariotest” the “winged seeds” to “their dark wintry” beds, where they “lie cold and low,/Each like a corpse…until/Thine azure sister (west wind) of the Spring” blows her trumpet and the world is reborn with “sweet buds” and fills “With living hues and odours plain and hill.” At the end of section I Shelley calls to the wind to “hear” him. What he wishes to communicate with this awesome “presence” is withheld until sections IV and V of the poem.

In section II of the poem, Shelley lifts his eyes to the sky and sees “clouds,” which his imagination connects to the dying leaves of section I. However, something rather unexpected and strange happens. Those clouds/leaves become “Angels of rain and lightning” which then become “Like the bright hair uplifted from the head/Of some fierce Maenad…/The locks of the approaching storm.” Shelley’s similes have taken us from analogies of fall and spring to biblical/apocalyptic imagery to the imagery of the frenzied women of the Greek myth of Dionysus, who was believed to die each fall and rise each spring. At the end of this section, he once again calls to the wind, asking it to “hear” him. The reader must wonder, what is it Shelley seeks? The first section suggests Shelley wants to express and celebrate the changing seasons and the cycle of life. But here the biblical and Greek imagery conveys something much more.

In section III, Shelley’s imagination looks seaward, to the Mediterranean and the Atlantic and envisions the west wind’s effect upon the waters. The wind’s “presence” awakens the Mediterranean from its “summer dreams” to mirror the “palaces and towers,” Roman emperors built above Baiae bay near Naples and now “All overgrown with azure moss and flowers/So sweet, the sense faints picturing them.” After his looking backward to Ancient Rome, Shelley pictures the Atlantic and sees the west wind cleaving its waves into “chasms,” while in the depths below, “The sapless foliage of the ocean, know/Thy voice, and suddenly grow grey with fear,/And tremble and despoil themselves.” The key word in the passage is the verb “know,” and in this section, Shelley affirms that like the leaves and clouds of the previous sections, the waters of Baiae Bay, the Atlantic’s waves, and the vegetation beneath the sea all “know” the west wind’s voice and obey its commands. Again, he cries “O hear!”

In the last two sections of the poem Shelley reveals what it is he wants the wind to “hear.” In lines 43-45, Shelley imagines himself as an object of the Wind’s power. Perhaps by being blown about by the wind, Shelley could “share” “The impulse of thy (wind’s) strength.” He remembers when he was young that the imagination of his “boyhood,” made him a “comrade” of the wind’s “wandering…to outstrip the skiey speed.” For the Romantic poets, childhood imagination, uncontaminated by the adult knowledge that can manacle it, could receive spiritual insights from nature. But this experience, freely open to those in childhood innocence, is no longer available to the adult Shelley. A way to receive the wind’s spirit is told in the next line: “I would never have striven/As thus with thee in prayer in my sore need.” Striving with the wind in “prayer”? If Shelley’s language sounds familiar, that is because it has echoes of biblical characters (e.g. the Psalms, Job) who call on God to relieve their suffering. For the first time in the poem, he directly appeals to the wind and cries out for it to “lift [him] as a wave, a leaf, a cloud!” because “I fall upon the thorns of life! I bleed!/A heavy weight of hours has chained and bowed/One too like thee: tameless, and swift, and proud.” According to Shelley, the wind possesses the power to heal him, to relieve his suffering, to lift him beyond the limits of ordinary life. But he remains frustrated in his “striving” to be as the leaves, clouds and sea until in the final section he discovers a means to unchain his spirit.

In this concluding section, Shelley returns to Greek myth with the first four words: “Make me thy lyre.” The “lyre” is the Eolian lyre (it was also called a harp) is a musical instrument that produces sounds when the wind passes through its strings. The Greek poet and prophet Orpheus could charm all animate and inanimate objects with its music. Envisioning himself as the musical instrument upon which the west wind can play its harmonies, he can receive the “Spirit fierce” of the west wind, become one with that spirit, “Be thou me, impetuous one!” and have his “dead thoughts” driven “over the universe/Like withered leaves to quicken new birth!” The thoughts fall dead to the ground but are “quicken[ed] to a new birth” by the wind. The poem accelerates through lines 65-70, and Shelley rises like a poet/prophet calling on humanity to hear in his voice “the incantation of this verse,” which will “Scatter” his “words” among mankind!” This “incantation” will awaken humanity through the prophetic power of Shelley’s words: “Be through my lips to unawakened Earth/The Trumpet of a prophecy!” Finally able to receive the inspiration the west wind breathes into all life, Shelley is quietly confident and whispers the poem’s conclusion: “O Wind,/If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?”  

Monday, January 13, 2025

Thomas Traherne

      Thomas Traherne (1636-1674) was an Anglican clergyman and mystical writer who has often been associated with the Metaphysical poets John Donne, George Herbert, Henry Vaughan and Richard Crashaw. His poetry was largely unknown until a manuscript of his poems was discovered by William Brooke in a London bookstall in 1897. Many of Traherne’s poems employ metaphors that illustrate his understanding of the relationship between the physical and spiritual worlds. “Shadows in the Water” is one of his most popular poems and an interesting illustration of his work:

Monday, December 23, 2024

Twelve Days of Christmas Poems

     The Christmas season grows longer each year; now, I see decorations rising here and there even before the Halloween candy has been passed out to all the kids. Then, suddenly Christmas decorations will be pulled down, packed up and stored in basements and attics until the next season begins. Not many people are aware that Christmas Day begins the Twelve Days of Christmas ending with the Feast of the Epiphany. The word “Epiphany” means revelation or manifestation. The western tradition of the Epiphany acknowledges the visit of the Magi to the baby Jesus. And those twelve days should be remembered, if not for religious reasons, then for poetic ones. To commemorate the often forgotten Twelve Days of Christmas, I am offering 12 poems, one to be read each day until January 6th. Some are religious, some joyous, some secular, and some brooding.

Day 1: Excepts from “The Morning of Christ’s Nativity,” by John Milton (1608-1674).

                                                 I
This is the month, and this the happy morn
Wherein the Son of heaven's eternal King,
Of wedded maid, and virgin mother born,
Our great redemption from above did bring;
For so the holy sages once did sing,
     That he our deadly forfeit should release,
And with his Father work us a perpetual peace.

                                                 II
That glorious form, that light unsufferable,
And that far-beaming blaze of majesty,
Wherewith he wont at heaven's high council-table,
To sit the midst of trinal unity,
He laid aside; and here with us to be,
     Forsook the courts of everlasting day,
And chose with a darksome house of mortal clay.

                                               III
Say heavenly Muse, shall not thy sacred vein
Afford a present to the infant God?
Hast thou no verse, no hymn, or solemn strain,
To welcome him to this his new abode,
Now while the heaven by the sun's team untrod,
Hath took no print of the approaching host keep watch in squadrons 
bright?

                                               IV
See how from far upon the eastern road
The star-led wizards haste with odours sweet,
O run, prevent them with thy humble ode,
And lay it lowly at his blessed feet;
Have thou the hour first, thy Lord to greet, 
     And join thy voice unto the angel quire,
From out his secret alar touched with hallowed fire.

                                         The Hymn
                                                  I
It was the winter wild,
While the heaven-born-child
     All meanly wrapped in the rude manger lies;
Nature in awe to him
Had doffed her gaudy trim,
     With her great master so to sympathize:
It was no season then for her
To wanton with the sun her lusty parmour.

                                                  II
Only with speeches fair
She woos the gently air
     To hide her guilty front with innocent snow,
And on her naked shame,
Pollute with sinful blame,
     The saintly veil of maiden white to throw,
Confounded that her maker's eyes
Should look so near upon her foul deformities.      

                                                  III
But he her fears to cease,
Sent down the meek-eyed Peace,
     She crowed with green, came softly sliding
Down through the turning sphere
His ready harbinger,
     With turtle wing, the amorous clouds dividing;
And waving wide her myrtle wand,
She strikes a universal peace through the sea and land.

                                                  IV
No war, or battle's sound
Was heard the world around
     The idle spear and shield were high uphung
The hooked chariot stood
Unstained with hostile blood,
     The trumpet spake not to the armed throng,
And kings sat still with awful eye,
As if they surely knew their sovran Lord was by.

                                                  V
But peaceful was the night
Wherein the Prince of Light
     His reign of peace upon the earth began:
The winds with wonder whist,
Smoothly the waters kissed,
     Whispering new joys to the mild ocean,
Who now hath quite forgot to rave,
While birds of calm sit brooding on the charmed wave...

                                                    XV
Yea Truth, and Justice then
Will down return to men,
     Orbed in a rainbow; and like glories wearing
Mercy will sit between,
Throned in celestial sheen,
     With radiant feet the tissued clouds down steering,
And heaven as at some festival,
Will open wide the gates of her high palace hall.

                                                       XVI
But wisest fate says no,
This must not yet be so,
     The babe lies yet in smiling infancy,
That on the bitter cross
Must redeem our loss;
     So both himself and us to glorify:
Yet first to those ychained in sleep,
The wakeful trump of doom must thunder through the deep.

The peace and joy of Christ’s birth brings, which is celebrated each Christmas day, is set aside by Milton. Instead, he lays out the full consequence of this birth. Christ is born to redeem the world, to judge ultimately the human race, to save or condemn the worthy and unworthy. To accomplish this, first, Christ must die on the cross, rise from death, and finally return to judge the living and the dead. This early poem by Milton anticipates his epic of the story of Adam and Eve and original sin: Paradise Lost.

Day 2: “Christ’s Nativity,” by Henry Vaughan (1621-1695)

                                   I
Awake, glad heart! Get up and sing,
It is the birthday of the King,
     Awake! Awake!
     The sun doth shake
Light from his locks, and all the way
Breathing perfumes, doth spice the day.

Awake, awake! Hark, how the woods rings
Winds whisper, and the busy springs
     A consort make;
     Awake, awake!
Man is their high-priest, and should rise
To offer up the sacrifice.

I would I were some bird or star,
Fluttering in woods, or lifted liar far
     Above this inn
     And road of sin!
Then either star, or bird, should be
Shining,or singing still to Thee.

I would I had in my best part
Fit rooms for Thee! Or my heart 
     Were so clean as
     Thy manger was!
But I am all filth, and obscure,
Yet if Thou wilt, Thou canst make clean.

Sweet Jesu! will then; Let no more
This leper haunt, and soil Thy door,
     Curse him, ease him
     O release him!
And let once more by mystic birth
The Lord of life be born in earth.

                                   II
How kind is heaven to Man! If here
     One sinner doth amend
Straight there is joy, and every sphere
     In music doth contend;
And shall we then no voices lift?
     Are mercy, and salvation
Not worth our thanks? Is life a gift
     Of no more acceptation?
Shall He that did come down from thence,
     Of all His woes remain?
Can neither Love, nor sufferings bind?
     Are we all stone, and earth?
Neither His bloody passions mind,
     Nor one day bless His birth?
Alas, my God! Thy birth now here
Must not be numbered in the year.

The first two stanzas are pure praise for the birth of Christ, beginning with

Awake glad heart! get up and sing!
It is the birthday of thy King
Awake! Awake.

The speaker calls on you to celebrate and conveys a rapturous anticipation for the event of Christ’s birth. The air is filled with the sun’s light and perfumes fill the air. In the second stanza, the natural world of winds, woods, and streams create a congenial concert—all of which symbolize the importance of the day. When the speaker says that man “should rise/To offer up the sacrifice” at the second stanza, the poem shifts to man’s imperfections, “I would I were some bird, or star,” but the speaker knows man’s imperfections make him unworthy and wishes “that my heart/Were so clean as/Thy manger was!” Therefore, man can only ask for Redemption:

 Sweet Jesus will then; Let no more
This leper haunt, and soil Thy door,
   Cure him, ease him
   O release him!
And let once more by mystic birth
The Lord of life be born in earth.

The poem not only celebrates Christ’s birth, but also man’s desire to be worthy of that divine birth. The speaker yearns for forgiveness through a sublime experience.

Day 3: “The Burning Babe,” Robert Southwell SJ (1561-1595)

As I in hoary winter night stood shivering in the snow,
Surprised I was with sudden heat which made my heart to glow;
And lifting up a fearful eye to view what fire was near,
A pretty Babe all burning bright did in the air appear;
Who, scorched with excessive heat, such floods of tears did shed
As though his floods should quench his flames which with his tears were fed.
"Alas!" quoth he, "but newly born, in fiery hearts I fry,
Yet none approach to warm their hearts or feel my fire but I!
My faultless breast the furnace is, the fuel wounding thorns,
Love is the fire and sighs the smoke, the ashes shame and scorns;
The fuel Justice layeth on, and Mercy blows the coals,
The metal in this furnace wrought are men's defiled souls,
For which, as now on fire I am to work them to their good,
    So will I melt into a bath to wash them in my blood."
    With this he vanished out of sight and swiftly shrunk away,
    And straight I called unto mind that it was Christmas day.

Southwell’s poem is one of the most shocking readers will come across in this post. This strange poem begins with the speaker out on a frigid winter night when he feels himself warmed by something above him. He is struck then by the sight of a burning Babe hovering in the air, who as he burns, has tears pouring from his eyes. While he wonders why the tears do not extinguish the flames, the burning babe begins to speak to him. The Babe explains the reasons for the fire and the tears. They represent God’s love and compassion for the fallen human race. Certainly, that notion will strike many readers as rather odd. But perhaps even more mystifying is the fuel of the fire, which the Babe tells the speaker are “wounding thorns.” These thorns symbolize the crown of thorns that his torturers will fasten to his head and strike with sticks during the hours prior to his execution. As in Milton’s poem, this Christmas poem is no adoring celebration of Jesus’s birth but, portends the bloody torture and crucifixion he will suffer for the salvation of the human race. A brief note about Robert Southwell might explain his inclination to conceive of the nativity as he did. Southwell was a Jesuit priest who clandestinely administered the outlawed Catholic sacraments in England during the reign of Elizabeth I. He knew he risks being captured and brutally tortured and killed if caught, but believed the suffering he would have to endure would be a duty and an honor for a Catholic priest. He wrote, “let them draw us upon hurdles, hang us, unbowel us alive, mangle us, boil us, set our quarters upon their gates, to be meat for birds of the air…” It seems likely that his fervent religious belief influenced the imagery he employed in his poetry. Anyway, he got what he wished for: In 1592, he was captured by Richard Topcliffe, tortured for two years, then hanged, drawn and quartered in 1595.

Day 4: “The Oxen,” by Thomas Hardy (1840)

Christmas Eve, and twelve of the clock.
"Now they are all on their knees."
As elder said as we sat in a flock
By the embers in hearthside.

We pictured the meek mild creatures where
They dwelt in their strawy pen,
Nor did it occur to one of us there
To doubt they were kneeling then.

So fair a fancy few would weave 
In these years! Yet, I feel,
If someone said on Christmas Eve,"
Come; see the oxen kneel,

"I the lonely barton by yonder coomb
Our childhood used to know,"
I should go with him in the gloom,
Hoping it might so.

“The Oxen” was published in the Times of London, on Christmas Eve, 1915. In the first half of the poem, the speaker is remembering a Christmas Eve many years ago when he was a child. The second half shifts to the time in which it was written, 1915, when Hardy was 65 years old. So much simpler than the three previous poems, yet no less powerful, Hardy juxtaposes pure childhood belief with adult nostalgic yearning.

Day 5: “Journey of The Magi” by T. S. Eliot (1888-1965)

“A cold coming we had of it,
Just the worst time of year
For a journey, and such a long journey:
The ways deep and the weather sharp,
The very dead of winter."
And the camels galled, sore-footed, refractory,
Lying down in the melting snow.
There were times we regretted
The summer palaces on slopes, the terraces,
And the silken girls bringing sherbet.
Then the camel men cursing and grumbling
And running away, and wanting their liquor and women,
And the night-fires going out, and the lack of shelters,
And the cities hostile and towns unfriendly
And the villages dirty and charging high prices:
A hard time we had of it.
At the end we preferred to travel at night,
Sleeping in snatches,
With the voices singing in our ears, saying
That this was all folly.

Then at dawn we came down to a temperate valley,
Wet, below the snow line, smelling of vegetation;
With a running stream and a water mill beating the darkness,
And three trees on the low sky,
And an old white horse galloped away in the meadow.
Then we came to a tavern with vine-leaves over the lintel,
Six hands at an open door dicing for pieces of  silver,
And feet kicking the empty wineskins.
But there was no information, and so we continued
And arrived at evening, not a moment too soon
Finding the place; it was (you may say) satisfactory.

All this was a long time ago, I remember,
And I would do it again, but set down
This set down
This: were we led all that way for
Birth or Death? There was a Birth, certainly,
We had evidence and no doubt. I had seen birth and death,
But had thought they were different; this Birth was
Hard and bitter agony for us, like Death, our death.
We returned to our places, these Kingdoms,
But no longer at ease here, in the old dispensation,
With an alien people clutching their gods.
I should be glad of another death.

“The Journey of the Magi” was published in 1927, a year after Eliot converted to Anglicanism and critics have suggested that the poem is an allegorical representation of Eliot’s religious struggles. Be that as it may, the poem reimagines the biblical story in the Gospel of Matthew the Magi’s journey to pay homage to the new king of the Jews, the infant Jesus with gifts of gold, frankincense and myrrh. One of the Magi recounts the journey’s difficulties, their reaction to the infant Jesus and what the experience ultimately meant to him. In stanza 1, the speaker candidly complains about the weather, the accommodations, the hostility of people they met, their lack of sleep and the thought this journey was a mistake. Stanza 2 includes imagery that intimates a vision of Jesus’s betrayal and crucifixion and the curious reaction the Magi have once they encounter the infant Jesus. Finally, stanza 3 reveals the profound transformation, the epiphany, the speaker experiences as a result of this visit. Birth and death become reversed and the pagan gods he once worshipped are banished to oblivion.

Day 6: “The Magi,” by William Butler Yeats (1865-1939)

Now as at all times I can see in the mind’s eye,
In their stiff, painted clothes, the pale unsatisfied ones
Appear and disappear in the blue depths of the sky
With all their ancient faces like rain-beaten stones,
And all their helms of silver hovering side by side,
and all their eyes still fixed, hoping to find once more,
Being by Calvary's turbulence unsatisfied,
The uncontrollable mystery on the bestial floor.

In this rather ambiguous poem, Yeats takes the story of the Magi shapes it to align with his own theory that the birth of Christ would not ultimately result in the end of history with Christ’s death, resurrection and second coming. Yeats believed that history moved in two-thousand-year cycles and Christ and Christianity were just one cycle in this continuous movement. Thus, he envisions the Magi as “unsatisfied” by Jesus’s birth and his death, “Calvary’s turbulence.” To see what Yeats thought would follow the era of Christian, see his poem “The Second Coming.”

Day 7: “In Memoriam A. H. H.,” (Sect. 106) by Alfred Tennyson (1809-1892)

Ring out, wild bells, to the wild sky,
  The flying cloud, the frosty light:
  The year is dying in the night;
Ring out, wild bells, and let him die.

Ring out the old, ring in the new,
  Ring, happy bells, across the snow:
  The year is going, let him go;
Ring out the false, ring in the true.

Ring out the grief that saps the mind,
  For those that here we see no more;
  Ring out the feud of rich and poor,
Ring in redress to all mankind.

Ring out a slowly dying cause,
  And ancient forms of party strife;
  Ring in the noble modes of life,
With sweeter manner, purer laws.

Ring out the want, the care, the sin,
  The faithless coldness of the times;
  Ring out, ring out my mournful rhymes,
But ring the fuller minstrel in.

Ring out false pride in place and blood,
  The civic slander and the spite;
  Ring in the love of truth and right,
Ring in the common love of good.

Ring out old shapes of foul disease;
  Ring out the narrowing lust of gold;
  Ring out the thousand wars of old,
Ring in the thousand years of peace.

Ring in the valiant man and free,
  The larger heart, the kinder hand;
  Ring out the darkness of the land,
Ring in the Christ that is to be.

Tennyson’s poem was written for his closest friend and confidant, Arthur Hallam, who died suddenly when he was twenty-two years old. Profoundly grief stricken by his death, he wrote this elegy for him over a period of seventeen years, composing 131 sections of the work, which numbers nearly 3000 lines. The poem is more than simply an elegy as Tennyson reflects on several ideas and issues that affected Victorians during the rapidly changing time in which they lived. Of course, the section above is about the change from the old year to the new. Tennyson directly addresses Christmas in sections 28,78,108.

Day 8: “In the Bleak Midwinter,” by Christina Rossetti (1830-1894)

In the bleak midwinter, frosty wind made a moan,
Earth stood hard as iron, water like a stone;
Snow had fallen, snow on snow, snow on snow,
In the bleak midwinter, long ago.

Our God, Heaven cannot hold Him, nor earth sustain;
Heaven and earth shall flee away when He comes to reign."
In the bleak midwinter a stable place sufficed
The Lord God Almighty, Jesus Christ.

Enough for Him, whom cherubim, worship night and day,
Breastful of milk, and a mangerful of hay;
Enough for Him, whom angels fall before,
The ox and ass and camel which adore.

Angels and archangels may have gathered there,
Cherubim and seraphim thronged the air;
But His mother only, in her maiden bliss,
Worshipped the beloved with a kiss.

What can I give Him, poor as I am?
If I were a shepherd, I would bring him a lamb;
If I were a Wise Man, I would do my part;
Yet What I can give Him: my heart.

This is another nativity poem, which became a popular carol sang in English churches. The poem begins with an image of a “bleak midwinter” of cold and snow for the Christmas Nativity setting. This ominous beginning is followed by a series of contrasts. In stanza 2, “heaven cannot hold him,” yet earth will not be able to sustain him. Ironically, when “He comes to reign” both “Heaven and earth shall flee away.” Despite his awesome power, a lowly “stable-place” will “suffice” for his birth. This contrast continues in stanza 3 where angels worship “Him” and “Fall down before Him” as he lay sleeping on hay among an ox and an ass. The angels seem to dominate stanza 4 until the solitary figure of “His Mother” Mary appears and with maternal love bestows “a kiss” on the sleeping infant. As the poem concludes, the persona of a speaker slips, and Rossetti herself affirms her presence and the conviction of her Christian faith as she humbly offers to give Jesus her complete devotion-her heart. Her humility mirrors the humility of both Jesus’s birth and his eventual self-sacrifice on the cross.

Day 9: “A Christmas Carol,” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834)

I
The shepherds went their hasty way,
   And found the lowly stable-shed
Where the Virgin-Mother lay:
   And now they checked their eager tread,     
For the babe, that at her bosom clung,
A Mother's song the Virgin-Mother sung.

II
They told her how a glorious light,
   Streaming from a heavenly throng,
Around them shone, suspending night!
   While sweeter than a mother's song,
Blest Angles heralded the Saviour's birth!
Glory to God on high! and Peace on Earth.

III
She listened to the tale divine,
   And closer still the Babe she pressed;
And while she cried, the Babe is mine!
   The milk rushed faster to her breast:
Joy rose within her, like a summer's morn;
Peace, Peace on Earth! the Prince of Peace is born.

IV
Thou Mother of the Prince of Peace,
   Poor, simple, and of low estate!
That Strife should vanish, Battle cease,
   O why should this thy soul elate?
Sweet Music's loudest note, the Poet's story,
Did'st thou ne'er love to hear of Fame and Glory?

V
And is not War a youthful king,
   A stately Hero clad in Mail?
Beneath his footsteps laurels spring;
   Him Earth's majestic monarchs hail
Their friend, their playmate! and his bold bright eye
Compels the maiden's love-confessing sigh.

VI
"Tell this in some more courtly scene,
   To maids and youths in robes of state!
I am a woman poor and mean,
   And therefore is my soul elate.
War is a ruffian, all with guilt defiled,
That from the aged father tears his child!

VII
"A muderous fiend, by fiends adored,
   He kills the Sire and starves the son;
The Husband kill, and from her board
   Steals all his Widow's toil had won;
Plunders God's world of beauty; rends away
all safety from the Night, all comfort from the day. 

VIII
"Then wisely is my soul elate,
   That strife should vanish, battle cease:
I'm poor and of a low estate,
   The Mother of the Prince of Peace.
Joy rises in me, like a summer morn:
Peace, Peace on Earth! the Prince of Peace is born."

Coleridge first published this poem in the Morning Post, December 25th, 1799. When the shepherds arrived at the stable, they are awestruck by the “glorious light/Streaming from a heavenly throng.” But when they learn that the “Babe” will be the “prince of Peace," and that he will bring “Peace on Earth,” they ask Mary why this would elate her. They try to convince her that the traditional heroic qualities Poets have endowed their kings and heroes with should also be her son’s. Doesn’t she know that a true king embodies the martial qualities found in “A stately Hero clad in mail?” “Poor, simple” Mary shrewdly counters the shepherds’ by distinguishing the difference between the fantasy world of the poets and the brutal, bestial reality of war.

Day 10: “I saw a Stable,” by Mary Coleridge (1861-1907)

I saw a stable, low and very bare,
A little child in a manger.
The oxen knew Him, had Him in their care,
To men He was a stranger.
The safety of the world was lying there,
And the world's danger.

Mary Coleridge was the great grandniece of Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Her interesting, brief nativity poem warrants comparison with the other nativity poems. The first half is a simply traditional depiction of the babe in the manger. The second half convey mystery and paradox. Coleridge intimates that “A little child in a manger” has been born not only to save mankind, but also to judge humanity.

Day 11: “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Savior,” Ben Jonson (1572-1637)

I sing the birth was born tonight,
The Author both of life and light;
The angels so did sound it,
And like the ravished shepherds said,
Who saw the light, and were afraid,
Yet searched, and true they found it.

The Son of God, the eternal King,
That did us all salvation bring,
And freed the soul from danger;
He whom the whole world could not take,
The Word, which heaven and earth did make,
Was now laid in a manger.

The Father's wisdom willed it so,
The Son's obedience knew no "No,"
Both wills were in one stature;
And as that wisdom had decreed,
The Word was now made Flesh indeed,
And took on Him our nature.

What comfort by Him do we win?
Who made Himself the Prince of sin,
To make us heirs of glory?
To see this Babe, all innocence,
A Martyr born in our defense,
Can man forget this story?

Jonson’s poem commemorates the birth of Christ, seeing his nativity as initiating a new era for the human race. He nimbly juxtaposes the paradox of an “eternal king” with the image of this humble infant lying in the manger. In stanza 3, he alludes to the Gospel of John with “The Word was now made Flesh indeed,” and in stanza 4, tethers Christ’s birth to his sacrifice on the cross. With this short poem, Jonson furnishes us with a polished, terse vision of the two foundational events of Christianity.

Day 12: “The House of Hospitalities,” by Thomas Hardy

Here we broached the Christmas barrel,
   Pushed up the charred log-end;
 Here we sang the Christmas carol,
      And called in friends.

Time has tired me since we met here
   Where the folk now dead were young.
Since the viands were outset here
      And quaint song sung.

And the worm has bored the viol
   That used to lead the tune,
Rust eaten out the dial
      That struck the night's moon.

Now no Christmas brings in neighbours,
   And the New Year comes unlit;
Where we sang the mole now labours,
      And spiders knit.

Yet at midnight if here walking,
   When the moon sheets wall and tree,
I see forms of old time talking,
      Who smile on me.

It might seem sad to end the Twelve Days of Christmas poems with Thomas Hardy, who is known for his fatalism and his dark vision of human existence. Certainly, this poem reveals the speaker’s sadness at the passage of time. In stanzas 1-4, the speaker remembers the past when he and his companions celebrated Christmas compared with his loneliness, the decay he sees around him, and the darkness the new year forebodes for him. Yet, the speaker proposes some hope in the final stanza. He imagines walking under sheets of moonlight and seeing “forms of old time talking” with him. Though the companions of the past are dead, his memory is his house of hospitality and within his imagination he can see and feel those smiles from years past.